35 (1): 29-37. Participant 7( aged 20 years), reported that . Certain Arabic words have no exact English equivalent. Fabos A (2008) Resisting Blackness Muslim Arab Sudanese in the Diaspora. Several reasons were given as to the importance of a large body size. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants to allow for an exploration of key issues and topics, while allowing the researcher to retain a degree of control via the standardisation of the interview process (Denscombe, 2003). Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3 (2):77101. 46 (2):6675. Thompson JK, Stice E (2004) 'Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology', in Oltmanns T.F. Khartoum: Karmal. The findings reveal that other traditional practices continue to be valued and cherished, such as striving for a large body type and light skin. Skin lightening compounds are potential health hazards. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued warnings about the use of creams such as Diana and Rose which contain mercury which can cause kidney disease and affect foetal brain development. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Winant H (2000) Race and Race Theory. Also participants had the right not to answer any question. All the women, however, were Sudanese, having been born and raised in Sudan. Hunter M (2002) if youre light youre alright light skin color as social capital for women of color. In both cases, the socio-cultural context that is, the culturally specific and shifting values, beliefs or ways of knowing, and the dominant narratives of beauty play central, determining roles (Tai Soon 2013). 7 (1): 124128. For the participants, the practices were linked to their sense of self, of womanhood and of cultural belonging. It can also cause mental illnesses such as psychosis, and changes in or loss of hearing, vision or taste. Projects. There are a number of significant influences that have shaped modern Sudanese society. Int J Dermatol. Palgrave Macmillan. Ibrahim (1972), a leading Sudanese feminist who has written widely in this area, argues that Sudanese culture is dominated by gender and ethnic inequality, and that in Sudan, women are perceived as weak, emotional and irrational individuals. In rural areas, there remained an appreciation of fatness as a sign of female beauty, and many related traditional methods were still in use. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Poisoning Linked to Skin Products. The journal encourages advancements in the areas mentioned above in the form of research articles, reviews, commentaries, case studies and letters to the editors. Of importance is the work of Fredrickson and Roberts (1997, Fredrickson 2011), who seek to place the female body in a sociocultural context and to explore the tendency of women who are subjected to constant processes of acculturation to internalise and adopt the observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves and the hegemonic narrative of beauty. Yousif et. The health risks associated with PPD poisoning include severe allergic reactions such as angioedema, acute kidney injury, rhabdomyolysis, flaccid paralysis, gastro- intestinal symptoms, and heart and renal failure. Follow us on @ScimagoJRScimago Lab, Copyright 2007-2022. During the fourth phase, the themes were developed into a thematic map to clarify the direction of analysis by understanding the patterns in, and relationships between, the data. al (2014) conducted a study to examine the use of skin lightening creams that contain hydroquinone, corticosteroids and mercury. Available at: Batnitzky A (2011) 'Cultural constructions of obesity: Understanding body size, social class and gender in Morocco', Health & Place, 7 (1 ): 345352. Accordingly, the dynamic process of conceptualising female physical beauty in Sudan, the beautification practices and the methods used to achieve beauty have changed and evolved over time. Black henna is extremely popular among Sudanese women (Prcic, 2011), with most making use of black henna produced by mixing natural henna with other substances such as a paraphenylenediamine (PPD). New York: Routledge. These new products and their efficiency come at a high cost to health; they are increasingly risky and have a negative impact on women. The study findings were based on 19 semi-structured interviews conducted with female university students from different universities across the capital of Sudan (Table 1). Sudan is a multi-ethnic, multicultural African nation; it has recently emerged from decades of civil war and unrest that have significantly impacted its economic development and political stability. Being overweight is linked to cardiovascular disease (primarily heart disease and stroke), diabetes, musculoskeletal disorders, and cancers such as those of the womb, breast and colon. Follow us on @ScimagoJRScimago Lab, Copyright 2007-2022. Average acceptance to publication time (5-7 days), Average article processing time (30-45 days). Open Medicine. Page Last Updated on 02/26/2015, Evaluation of a Health Education Intervention to Improve Knowledge, Skills, Behavioral Intentions and Resources Associated with Preventable Determinants of Infant Mortality, Impact of Medicare Part D on Racial and Ethnic Minorities, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Social care institute for Excellence(SCIE), Directory of Research Journal Indexing (DRJI), Sudan, socio-cultural, body image, beauty practices, health risks, qualitative research. Ethnicity & Disease. The translation work between Arabic and English may have impacted on the data collection and analysis. Conflicts and Politics of Identity in Sudan. Cafri G, Thompson J and Roehrig M, Van den Berg P, Jacobsen P, Stark S (2006) An investigation of appearance motives for tanning: The development and evaluation of the Physical Appearance Reasons for Tanning Scale (PARTS) and its relation to sunbathing and indoor tanning intentions. Sutherland M (2011) Toward a Caribbean Psychology an African-Centered Approach. Accordingly, there is variation in what is considered to be an ideal body image by different people, and by different cultural and ethnic groups throughout the world (Dlova et.al 2014; Baumann, 2008). The study adds to our knowledge of how beauty practices are perceived by women in Sudan, and of the role of place and socio-cultural factors. As in the past, there were other features such as long hair, a small nose, medium height (being neither too short nor too tall), wide eyes and a rounded, well-proportioned face that were seen to further enhance beauty: . In Sudan, there is a long-established practice of applying black-henna skin decoration.

A limitation of the sample was the fact that although the views emerging from the interviews did not indicate variations linked to their different religious beliefs, much more work is needed to explore the role of such beliefs in beauty practices. Being slim or underweight was not desirable; being obese was even less desirable. This paper reports on a study that investigated body-image perceptions and the beauty practices, such as skin lightening, black-henna application and purposively induced weight gain, of young, educated Sudanese women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21 (2): 173206. Additional themes addressed the removal of the adverse effects of extended skin bleaching; to satisfy ones partner and/or attract male friends; to satisfy and impress peers. Gender & Society, 16 (2):175-193. Kiawi E, Edwards R, Shu J, Unwin N, Kamadjeu R, and Claude Mbanya J, (2006) knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour relating to diabetes and its main risk factors among urban residents in Cameroon: a qualitative survey. Fredrickson B, Hendler L, Nilsen S, OBarr J, and Roberts T (2011). As such, Sudanese culture is generally organised around the patriarchal extended-family model, as described by Mernissi (1991), and the state structure and power division reflect the dominance of men. and Emery, R. E. All the participants lived in Khartoum, but four participants were from rural areas of Sudan. Once permission had been granted to make contact with the students, potential participants were identified and invited to take part in the study. (2006) suggest that personal preferences in attractiveness are flexible, and can change with exposure to different environments and situations. Skin-lightening products contain chemicals, such as mercury (Jalika C, et. Participants used the expressions full-figured, not too fat, not too thin and medium-sized to refer to the ideal body weight for women in Sudanese society. From birth, a girl is prepared to be a wife, tending to be taught cooking skills and the importance of projecting an ideal version of womanhood in order to secure a husband and maintain the social standing of her family. Westerhof W (2006) Toxicology and health risks of hydroquinone in skin lightening formulations. Keery H, van den Berg P, Thompson K (2004). Dlova et.al (2014) conducted another study in South Africa that found that one third of African and Indian women used skin lightening products due to lack of awareness of the associated risks. For instance, face scarifying and lip tattooing do not feature in the modern Sudanese female-body ideal; hence, these beauty rituals are practised less and less, although they remain important in the history of Sudan. Several factors play a role in shaping a persons perception of the ideal body image, and their thoughts and feelings about their own body. The paper explores these students views of dominant notions of beauty, and their own rituals and practices. The interviews lasted between 60 and 140 minutes, took place in a room in the university where the participant was a student, and were conducted in Arabic, the first language of all the women. al (2011). The data-analysis process was supported by NVivo 9 software. Various methods were used by participants to achieve a lighter skin colour. The result of the study done by Yousif and his colleagues indicated that more than half of the Sudanese girls in higher and secondary school in central Sudan misuse skin lightening products. Participants in this study were higher and secondary school students in central Sudan. The researcher confirmed that confidentiality would be maintained throughout the study. These creams were the most commonly applied to the body and combined with the use of soaps and tablets. Women's perceptions of the benefits and risks of skin-lightening creams in two South African communities. Also important is the work by Cash and Pruzinsky (1990), Grogan (2008) Vandenbosch, (2012) and others on body-image perception and the range of actions people take in modifying their body and regulating their behaviour. The editorial Tracking system facilitates a user friendly article submission, review and publication. Prcic S, Matic A, Matic M, Petrovic A, Djuran V, Gajinov Z (2011) Henna tattoo contact dermatitis a report of four cases and brief review of the selected literature. Journal of Black Studies, 42 (8):1175-1194. To date, few studies have investigated body ideation and body-image perception in developing countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health; 8 (6 ): 2516-23. [Online]. Particular transcripts were returned to the participants for validation. First is Islam, the dominant religion practised in Sudan for centuries. Baumann S (2008) The moral underpinnings of beauty: A meaning-based explanation for light and dark complexions in advertising. Mercury can be absorbed into the bloodstream, causing damage to the kidneys, liver and brain, potentially leading to organ failure. Kirwan L, Hgg T, Trk L, Welsby A (2002) Studies on the history of late antique and Christian Nubia. J Egypt Public Health Assoc 85 (1 & 2) 45-59. What was evident was that, for some, it remained important to conform to these standards, for they reaped rewards that were of value, both to their self-worth and to their professional and familial prospects. Badri B (2006) Feminist Perspectives in the Sudan An analytical overview. Some also bought unknown mixtures of a number of products that had been blended by shopkeepers.

Second, and linked closely to this, is the fact that in Sudan, Islamic-Arabic culture forms the basis of Sudanese national identity and is deeply ingrained within its system of social and political power (Fabos, 2008). All the participants perceived its application as being unique and beautiful, and an important symbol not only of Sudanese society but also of being married: . Vandenbosch L Eggermont S (2012) Understanding Sexual Objectification: A Comprehensive Approach Toward Media Exposure and Girls' Internalization of Beauty Ideals, Self-Objectification, and Body Surveillance. A qualitative methodology was chosen in order to capture rich data about the participants views, perceptions and lived experiences. This class evaluation is based on the students ability to afford to go to university, since, regardless of whether it is a private or a public university, a certain level of financial standing is needed. Ghana Med J. Jalika C, Gaska K, Kelly M. L, Michael W. (2014) Skin bleaching: A neglected form of injury and threat to global skin, African Safety Promotion Journal, 12 (1): 52-71. In order to gain a broad range of views and experiences, participants were recruited from different faculties. With the move away from less harsh, traditional methods, this has led to the widespread use of chemicals and skin-bleaching products. Amponsah D, Voegborlo R and Sebiawu G. (2014) Determination of Amount of Hydroquinone in some selected Skin-lightening Creams sold in the Ghanaian Market. Psychology of Women Quarterly. This shows that awareness alone is not enough; knowing the health risk is, it seems, not a forceful preventive against these practices. However, for the majority of the participants, skin lightening and the other beauty practices were important, and part of their daily lives. Cash T, Pruzinsky T (eds.) Follow us on @ScimagoJRScimago Lab, Copyright 2007-2022. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 5 6): 544- 550. This study was conducted in four universities in Khartoum, Sudan. Toxicity can produce a range of problems in the central-nervous-system, including personality changes, nervousness, irritability, tremors, weakness, fatigue, memory loss and peripheral neuropathy. The study reported here is underpinned by core theories of objectification and self-objectification of the female body. The response to this societal focus by the participants varied. Fredrickson B, Roberts T, (1997) Objectification theory: Toward understanding womens lived experiences and mental health risks. Publication ethics & malpractice statement, https://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/tagungen/balghis_badri.pdf, https://individual.utoronto.ca/sbaumann/Poetics2008.pdf, https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm294849.htmMercury . Lewis K, Robkin N, Karie Gaska K, Njoki L (2011) Investigating Motivations for Womens Skin Bleaching in Tanzania. All three beauty practices are commonly performed; and all carry high health risks. Participant 4, aged 19 years, revealed: , Despite some participants indicating a reluctance to apply henna regularly, they generally agreed that it was essential to apply black henna at least once, on their wedding day. AL Qauhiz N (2010).Obesity among Saudi Female University Students: Dietary Habits and Health Behaviors. Additionally, TIM includes internalisation of societally constructed ideal body image and social comparison as two mediating factors that indirectly influence the development of body-image dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Bringing Back the Body: A Retrospective on the Development of Objectification Theory. Annual Review of Sociology Vol.26: 169185. The research method was designed so that the data could be analysed thematically, following guidelines developed by Braun and Clarke (2006). Islam impacts all spheres of political, social and cultural life, and the core tenets of Islam as linked to the role and position of women remain deeply embedded in Sudanese society. Clinical Psychology Review, 14 (7): 633661. Some believed that a combination of both physical attractiveness and moral values was essential for women to be viewed as beautiful. All the participants were given the right to withdraw at any time if they wished. According to most participants, a range of methods were used to gain weight: tablets, injections (including insulin), herbal tablets and high-calorie diets. This ongoing preoccupation with race and skin colour as part of an ethnic identity is clearly linked with the countrys historical roots and has, in turn, led to the institutional form of cherishing and celebrating any Arabic and Islamic roots. A numerical code was assigned to each interview. Journal of Environ Sci Eng. Olumide YM, Akinkugbe AO, Altraide D, Mohammed T, Ahamefule N, Ayanlowo S, Onyekonwu C and Essen N, (2008) Complications of chronic use of skin lightening cosmetics. The majority of participants felt that in Sudanese society, there was a great emphasis on physical attractiveness, with less regard for non-physical and personality qualities, such as a womans education, mental capacities and strengths. The impact of Islam in all spheres of political, social and cultural life, and the fact that Islamic-Arabic culture forms the basis of Sudanese national identity (Spaulding and Kapteijns,1991; Kirwan et al., 2002; Badri, 2006; Fabos, 2008), has, among other things, shaped dominant notions of beauty and the common beauty practices performed by Sudanese women.